Introduction
Georgia is a predominantly Orthodox Christian country. However, it is a home to a significant and diverse muslim minority. Among them, ethnically Georgian muslims from the seaside region called Adjara occupy a unique place. Islam in Adjara has a long and complicated history that includes identity stuggles, international influences, cultural negotiations and issues of the freedom of religion. This article explores the historical context, the topic of identity and some of the contemporary challenges facing Georgian Muslims from Adjara.
Historical Context
Islam appeared in Adjara gradually and due to the influence of the Ottoman Empire. The region fell under Ottoman rule in the 16th century. Not much can be said about how exactly Islam asserted itself in Adjara, but it is more or less clear that first the nobility, and later, by the beginning of the 19th century, already most of the population of this region had adopted Islam. The final entrenchment of Islam in Adjara concurred with the increasing significance of the region for the Ottoman Empire as it struggled against the growing Russian presence in the Caucasus.
After the 1877-1878 Russo-Turkish War, Adjara was incorporated into the Russian Empire. The economic and social uncertainties and fears of religious repression associated with the new administration, especially that of the Christian empire, prompted many Muslim Adjarians to emigrate to the Ottoman Empire in a mass migration known as “Muhajiroba”. The conquest of Adjara by the Russian Empire happened at the same time as the intellectuals-led process of nation-forming was taking place in Georgia. Georgian intellectuals started to redefine their project of nationalism to highlight that religious difference should not be a reason for excluding the muslim Georgians from the common national project. Key figure in Georgia’s national movement, Ilia Chavchavadze, famously said: “Neither the common language, nor the common religion or the common ethnic background are as important in uniting people as common history”. On the demand of Georgia’s intellectual leaders, the Imperial regime eased its policies towards Adjara, granting local muslim communities some privileges, including the right to some aspects of Shariah law and maintaining the Ottoman rate of taxation
The Soviet occupation of Georgia marked another important chapter for Georgian muslims. First of all, due to the treaty with Turkey, the region of Adjara got the status of an autonomous republic. This autonomy was based on the distinct religious character of the region. However, soviet rule had heavy consequences for Georgian muslims. The closure of borders and lack of access to the outside world denied the Georgian muslims religious education, and the official atheist policy of the Soviet Union pushed Islam from the public sphere to more private environments.
Issues of Identity
Georgia regained its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Since then, managing the multicultural character of the Georgian state has been a prominent issue. The hardships fell not only on various ethnic groups residing in Georgia but also on religious minorities. In the dominant national narrative that emerged during the Soviet occupation and became a foundation of the national-liberation movement, Christianity was an essential character of being Georgian. This has produced enduring dilemmas for Muslim Georgians, who often feel compelled to downplay their religious identity to affirm their patriotism.
During the Soviet era, some intellectuals sought to bridge the divide. In Pridon Khalvashi’s novel, Is it Possible or Not that a Muslim be a Georgian?, the protagonist reflects on this exact dilemma. The narrative, based on a meeting between a Georgian Muslim and a muhajir in Turkey, emphasises that being Muslim and being Georgian are not mutually exclusive. However, in 1989 leader of Georgia’s national-liberation movement, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, addressed the people in Adjara: “Dear Adjarians, you are also Georgians!” The word “also” was not met with sympathy by some people in Adjara, despite them remaining firmly committed to the national-liberation movement.
The issue became further complicated due to the unparalleled power and influence of Georgia’s Orthodox Church. The Orthodox Church started a campaign of baptising locals and empowering dominant public discourse, highlighting the historical significance of Orthodox Christianity. Ironically, the post-Soviet period created a fertile ground for the emergence of Islam as well, evidenced in the functioning of numerous mosques and madrassahs (educational institutions). The strengthening of both religious movements sometimes led to clashes between Christian and muslim communities. In spite of this, Adjara has never been a fertile ground for separatist or other divisive tendencies.
Legal Issues
The identity issues are not the only ones that Georgian muslims have to deal with. Georgia is officially and constitutionally committed to religious freedom. But the right to exercise this freedom is not always proactively defended. One of the most famous issues was regarding building a new mosque in Batumi – the biggest city in Adjara. The city’s only mosque, built in the 19th century, is too small to accommodate the growing population. As a result, worshippers are often forced to pray outside. In 2016 muslim community requested a permit to build a new Mosque in Batumi. The local government denied the request. The case was taken to the courts by non-governmental organisations. After 8 years, the case is not yet solved. Most recently, in 2023, the Supreme Court returned the case to the Appeal Court for review. The reasonings of the court were negatively assessed by some experts and organisations, highlighting that they establish a “vicious practice” not only regarding the rights of muslims but more generally towards the issue of equality.
Another similar case occurred when an attempt was made to open a muslim boarding school in Kobuleti – a coastal town in Adjara. The attempt was followed by protests from certain groups of local Christians who erected barricades at the entrance of the building, preventing the applicants from entering it and finalising the necessary renovation works. Some of them even left a cut-off head of a pig at the door as an insult towards muslims. The Georgian Orthodox Church officially condemned such behaviour. The case was taken to the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). The ruling became available in 2023. The ECHR stated that the discriminatory behaviour, which consisted mainly of hate speech, threats, and degrading treatment, accompanied by the police inaction, created feelings of fear and insecurity among the applicants and prevented them from opening a boarding school. The Court held that there were clear grounds to believe that the applicants had been insulted and threatened because they were Muslim, thus confirming the violation of their right to freedom of religion.
Government inaction is also clearly seen when it comes to the preservation of Islamic cultural heritage in Adjara. The Adjarian mosques are unique and supremely interesting. They are a part of Georgia’s multicultural heritage. Most of the mosques that are located in the Upper Adjara region are still used by local muslim communities. However, they are in a dire state. Even though some of these mosques have an official status of national heritage, the authorities neglect their duty to take neccessary measures to preserve them.
Conclusion
The story of Georgian Muslims from Adjara is one of deep historical roots and complex modern realities. As a community, they have lived through imperial transitions, religious suppression under Soviet rule, and post-Soviet identity struggles. The challenges they face today are not merely historical residues but are shaped by ongoing institutional biases, legal uncertainties, and prevailing public perceptions that often link national loyalty with religious affiliation.
While Georgia formally guarantees freedom of religion and recognises its multicultural identity, practice has not always matched principle. The long delay in resolving the Batumi mosque case, inaction in regard to the hate-fueled resistance to the Kobuleti school, and the government’s neglect of Islamic heritage sites reflect a troubling pattern: Muslim citizens are often treated not as equal participants in national life. These patterns undermine the ideals of equality and democratic pluralism.
However, it is crucial to note that the Muslim community in Adjara has not responded to marginalisation with separatism or extremism. On the contrary, their engagement remains peaceful, civic, and grounded in a strong Georgian identity.
The future of Georgia as a tolerant and pluralistic society depends on its ability to embrace this diversity not as a threat, but as an asset, one rooted deeply in its own history.
References and Further Reading:
Baramidze, R. (2010). Ethnic Georgian Muslims: A Comparison of Highland and Lowland Villages. Caucasus Analytical Digest, 20, 13–15.
Georgian Muslim Relations and Others v. Georgia, No. 24225/19 (ECtHR November 30, 2023). https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-229159
Graaf, C. V. de. (2024, April 23). Georgian Muslim Relations and Others v. Georgia – A bleeding pig’s head and other expressions of religious hatred with no police intervention. Strasbourg Observers. https://strasbourgobservers.com/2024/04/23/georgian-muslim-relations-and-others-v-georgia-a-bleeding-pigs-head-and-other-expressions-of-religious-hatred-with-no-police-intervention/
Kasinof, L. (2023, November 22). Georgia’s Adjaran Mosques Are Uniquely Beautiful, and Falling Into Disrepair. New Lines Magazine. https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/georgias-adjaran-mosques-are-uniquely-beautiful-and-falling-into-disrepair/
Khalvashi, T., & Batiashvili, N. (n.d.). Historic Overview of Discourse on Georgian ‘Essence.’
Liles, T. (n.d.). Islam and Religious Transformation in Adjara.
Sanikidze, G. (2018). Muslim Communities of Georgia: Old Problems and New Challenges. Islamophobia Studies Journal, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.4.2.0247
Ბათუმის ახალი მეჩეთის საქმე. (n.d.). Retrieved July 21, 2025, from https://socialjustice.org.ge/ka/products/batumis-akhali-mechetis-sakme
ჩაჩიბაია კოტე. (n.d.). რელიგია, ერი და სახელმწიფო საქართველოში: Ქრისტიანობის გავრცელება მუსლიმურ აჭარაში. Retrieved July 21, 2025, from https://socialjustice.org.ge/ka/products/religia-eri-da-sakhelmtsifo-sakartveloshi-kristianobis-gavrtseleba-muslimur-acharashi
