Introduction
Japan counts towards the top economies in the world, however it is facing persistent issues with gender equality and political representation of women. An alarmingly low number of women were represented within Japan’s House of Representatives in 2024, amounting to only about 10 percent (Geddie & Murakami, 2024). As a result Japan ranks low on global gender equality indexes. This article focuses on the barriers which prevent the majority of the women from political participation in Japan and explores the affecting cultural norms, legal frameworks, and internal political party structures.
Cultural Norms
Cultural norms play a key role in discouraging women from participating in political careers. Due to the presence of traditional gender roles, influenced by Confusian values and the ideology of Ryosai Kenbo of the (“good wife, wise mother”), women’s primary responsibilities are viewed to be as domestic caregivers and not as public leaders (Khalil, 2023). The family obligations commonly deter women from pursuing political careers, as they are not deemed to be compatible with each other (Gender Equality Bureau et al., 2023). As Japanese politics remain mainly male-dominated, established networks and informal “old boys’ clubs” are often inaccessible to women (Dalton, 2015). Advancements in politics commonly take place after working hours within social events, such as at drinking gatherings, where female politicians can feel unwelcome or may be even excluded from. As women have limited access to networking opportunities and informal mentorships, their ability to build influence within political parties is significantly reduced (Dalton, 2015).
Additionally, the media representation of female politicians is commonly biased as the focus is set on their appearance, marital status or family life, leaving out their policies and competencies within the political sphere (Krook, 2009). As an example, Former Prime Minister Taro Aso faced criticism for being sexist due to making insulting statements about Foreign Minister Yoko Kamikawa’s appearance and age within his speech (McCurry, 2024). Such statements increase the stereotypes of women not holding the capability of being in the role of a leader. Furthermore, cultural expectations place a negative stigma on assertive women, creating a double standard, where assertive men are admired in politics while female counterparts are frowned upon (McCurry, 2024).
Voter attitudes often reflect these cultural norms, with some people still holding views that question whether women can be strong leaders. A study conducted by the Tokyo Foundation for Policy Research unveiled the truths in voters’ minds. While voters view women politicians as more honest and compassionate, traits such as decisiveness and leadership are still confined to male politicians (Tokyo Foundation for Policy Research, 2023). These are qualities that are traditionally seen as important in politics, hindering women’s possibility to be elected into leadership roles. Due to the vast absence of women participating in politics, it deters young females from aiming for such careers, which keeps up the cycle of women’s underrepresentation in the political fields (Tokyo Foundation for Policy Research, 2023).
Legal Gaps
Significant legal gaps are present within Japan’s constitution, even though it guarantees equality between men and women. The 2018 “Act on Promotion of Gender Equality in the Political Field” promotes gender balance within political representation. This specifically encourages men and women to have equal opportunities in political decision making procedures (Act on Promotion of Gender Equality in the Political Field, 2018). However, difficulties arise in the implementation of these rights as the act is non-binding and does not provide for penalties in cases of non-compliance. Such ineffective laws hinder progress with increasing female political participation, especially where access to political participation for women is already difficult. Additionally the absence of gender quota laws or obligatory regulations which would call for the political parties to have a certain percentage of female candidates reduces the ability of women to participate in political roles.
Moreover the structures of the political and electoral systems in Japan create challenges. The election system used in Japan is a mixed member electoral system, where former position holders are usually favoured especially in single seat constituencies (Mathias, 2019). As the single seat constituencies account for about 60 percent of the members chosen to the parliament (Mathias, 2019) and the low representation of women present within, creates additional challenges for women to receive a seat. An additional barrier is faced as women have fewer political connections and financial backing, resulting in a difficulty to enter the political field. Due to the absence of adequate legislation, issues keep persisting and this matter stays unaddressed.
There are no legal provisions within Japan’s political environment such as maternity leave for elected officials or childcare support (Wakabayashi, 2017). Thus there are no workplace protections and family support policies to support women who want to pursue a political career. This increases the difficulty for women who have family responsibilities to enter and sustain careers in politics.
Overall, the underrepresentation of women in politics is reinforced by the lack of binding legal frameworks that would promote and support gender equality, compounded with the disadvantages arising from the structures of the electoral system and insufficient financial systems provided to women.
Political Party Structures
Unbalanced gender representation is commonly seen within the political party structures. Male networks, which have been established for longer periods of time dominate most of the influential political parties (McCurry, 2021). They are referred to as “old boys clubs” which usually control candidate selections, allocation of funds, and the key decision making processes (Khalil, 2023). The “old boys clubs” hold non-transparent characteristics and are based on personal connections. Women are commonly excluded from such informal networks, increasing the barriers for women to receive party resources or leadership positions (Khalil, 2023).
The internal candidate selection processes of political parties create disadvantages for women. Candidates with established name recognition, political history, or strong connections, are usually prioritised within parties (McCurry, 2021). These are all areas where men historically dominate. As a result, women without these backgrounds face significant challenges in securing nominations, especially in single-member districts (McCurry, 2021).
Furthermore, meaningful institutional support for the promotion of female candidates within political parties is gravely lacking. Even though some parties have voluntary targets or women’s sections, these initiatives are merely symbolic and lack proper funding or enforcement systems (UN Women, 2024). Only few parties provide for mentorship and leadership development or financial support aimed at shaping a female’s political skills, contributing to the underrepresentation of women within local and national levels. Female participation is discouraged through the internal structures of Japanese political parties, as late night and informal gatherings as well as seniority systems commonly exclude women. Especially women who have domestic responsibilities find it difficult to navigate through these practices, placing them at a disadvantage to proceed within leadership roles in the political field.
Conclusion
The underrepresentation of women in Japanese politics is a complex issue rooted in cultural norms, legal gaps, and political party structures. Traditional gender roles and resulting societal expectations define politics as a male dominated field, creating a discouraging environment for women to enter or achieve progress within political careers. Even though the constitution guarantees gender equality, the lack of binding legislation on mandatory quotas limits achievements made for gender parity within political representation. Moreover, additional barriers are created for candidate selection processes and the absence of institutional support provided for female candidates, through the political party structures where male networks control the game.
Bibliography
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