Reports

It is an empirical fact that women are under-represented in politics. It is also a fact
that women are no less likely to win an election when they decide to stand, and when elected,
women perform as well as, if not better, than men in political office (e.g. Anzia and Berry,
2012; Ashworth, Berry and de Mesquita, 2020; Cahn, 2020; Corbett et al., 2022; Holman and
Mahoney, 2023; Kanthak and Woon, 2015; Sevi and Blais, 2023). In trying to understand the
substantive lack of women in politics, scholars typically focus on the women already in office
and the gendered contextual factors surrounding them.

They examine the effectiveness of
quotas, the re-election of (female) incumbents, and voter bias or reactions towards female
candidates (e.g. Ashworth, Berry and de Mesquita, 2020; Bagues and Campa, 2021; Lawless,
2015; Schwindt-Bayer, 2005). In recent years, however, a cultural shift has been observed,
particularly in Western countries, suggesting an increasing voter preference for female
politicians (e.g. Bridgewater and Nagel, 2020; Cella and Manzoni, 2023; Stadelmann,
Portman and Eichenberger, 2014). In addition, many countries have introduced quotas to
increase women’s representation in politics (International IDEA, n.d.).

However, despite these efforts and social progress, women remain underrepresented
in politics in almost all countries (UN Women, n.d.). This article argues that a more in-depth
examination is warranted – one that looks at the underlying factors that influence the
decision-making process of women considering political candidacy. The
under-representation of women in politics is particularly due to the multitude of
obstacles they have to overcome when considering running for office. The decisions and
considerations women make before running for office require a significant amount of
strategic behaviour and come at a much higher cost than is the case of their male
counterparts. Consequently, the focus should be shifted from the question of why there are
fewer women in politics to an even earlier point in time. It is this question of why women run
for office less often than men that is the focus of this article. It will begin by examining the
relational assessment that women use in their decision-making processes. It will then explore
the financial costs and barriers that women face when running for political office, followed
by an examination of the challenging and hostile environment within the political sphere for
female candidates. The analysis then looks at the complex interplay between confidence and
ambition and attempts to understand its impact on women considering to stand for election.

Finally, the article concludes that women’s decision to run for political office depends on the
various costs they would face if they did so. It also becomes clear that men do not face these
costs and barriers to the same extent, which can explain why men run for political office
more often than women.v